ࡱ> e 8bjbj Ӭababw w\\\\\ppp84pU"~~~!!!!!!!$9$&X!9\~\\"~~!\\d"~\\!~!:8 , !x6$^d !%"0U"n RG'RG' G'\ ~~~~~~~!!~~~U"~~~~G'~~~~~~~~~B ": Rock-Fluid Interactions in Geothermal reservoir Systems and Implications for Carbon Sequestration Author: Grace Belshaw Research Aim: The general aim of this collaborative project is to investigate the types of dissolution and precipitation reactions that take place when combining rocks from an active geothermal well in Indonesia with high temperature fluids, representative of geothermal energy reservoir conditions. The importance of this research is based on the necessity to increase knowledge surrounding geothermal energy, which will help drive further commercialisation of geothermal energy as a major energy source that will be relied upon. Research Overview: Reinjecting fluids into the subsurface at geothermal energy reservoirs ensures that the pressure is maintained and reduces the need to dispose of waste fluids. To aid carbon sequestration, fluids can be reinjected with increased carbon dioxide content, in an attempt to store this in the subsurface. This carbon sequestration ability of geothermal energy reservoirs, is why its important to understand the types of reactions that will be expected to take place under these circumstances. Geothermal energy companies must know what species might be dissolving or precipitating in the systems, effecting the pore space of the rock and possibly the pipe work and infrastructure of geothermal plant operations and its ability to act as a carbon source. Supreme Energy provided the geothermal well rock samples. Objectives that are more specific include: Using a range of different batch type experimental methods to examine the rock samples and fluids (both pre and post experiment) to determine the species that may be released into or removed from the fluids. Using two methods to analyse the rock samples, both of which are conducted in batch reactors, capable of reaching the high temperature and pressure conditions associated with normal geothermal reservoir conditions and are capable of injecting carbon dioxide into the system, enabling the investigation of the feasibility of carbon sequestration with these rock samples. Crushing the rocks to form a powder - this gives a large overall surface area to promote faster (and therefore measureable) reaction times. Fluid analysis via Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) is the main analysis technique, to deduce what reactions are likely to have taken place based on the species detected in the fluids. Using small pieces of rock embedded in resin so that the surfaces of the samples can be observed with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) techniques before and after the experiments, to examine if anything has been affected by contact with the fluids. Geothermal Energy Overview: Geothermal energy production is a process by which the naturally occurring heat that exists below the subsurface of the Earth is extracted via hot water, to either produce steam to drive a turbine and produce electricity, or to be used directly as a heat source. The phenomenon of increasing temperatures with depth below the Earths surface is common across the whole world, however certain characteristics of a location can make the heat easier and therefore cheaper to access. A higher geothermal gradient (a higher than average increase in temperature with depth) can be found in areas where the crust is thinner, often associated with tectonic plate boundaries and volcanic activity. Indonesia is currently the worlds second largest producer of geothermal energy and due to its geographic location within the ring of fire some estimates suggest it is using only 4% of its geothermal capacity, meaning the potential to expand this technology there is huge1. This is what makes Indonesian samples so relevant and interesting to study. Carbon Sequestration and Geothermal Energy: Alongside this, there have been developments over the last few decades in the field of permeant carbon sequestration via mineral trapping in basaltic volcanic rocks. Various forms of geological carbon storage exist, such as injection into depleted oil reservoirs for enhanced oil recovery and injection into sedimentary basins to remove carbon dioxide from waste streams and the atmosphere. These techniques rely on an impermeable cap-rock layer above the storage site, to ensure the carbon dioxide is trapped below the surface, and computer models suggest it can take around 1000 years before this can be considered to have become a permanent storage solution. The Wallula Basalt Pilot Project in the US and the Carbfix project in Iceland injected carbon dioxide dissolved in water into basalt rocks, which are commonly found at geothermal reservoir sites. They observed that these fluids interacted with the rock and ultimately precipitated carbonate minerals, which means the injected carbon dioxide was permanently captured in the form of solid rock, and the Iceland project gave evidence this process occurred in just 2 years2,3. This could therefore be a hugely beneficial process in the efforts to reduce our carbon dioxide emissions. This is also a great process to have in existence alongside a geothermal energy extraction plant, as small amounts of naturally occurring carbon dioxide can be released from the subsurface during the extraction process. Whilst the CO2 emissions are usually only about 4% of those compared to an equivalent sized coal burning plant, aiming for completely renewable energy sources means these emissions need to be mitigated4. The basaltic type rocks that the Carbfix project and Wullula projects used have high quantities of minerals such as olivine, pyroxene and plagioclase. These minerals are rich in magnesium, iron and calcium. These species can form 2+ ions (cations) when released into solution, which can combine with the 2- carbonate ion to precipitate out as solid carbonate minerals. The chemical formula representing this process is shown below: (Ca,Mg,Fe)2+(aqueous) + CO32-(aqueous) ! (Ca,Mg,Fe)CO3 (solid) However, basaltic type rocks are not present in all locations. The samples obtained from Indonesia and used in this project are andesite type volcanic rocks. These have a different mineralogy from basalt, with less olivine and pyroxene minerals and more plagioclase minerals. This project is therefore investigating whether this andesite type rock may be able to show similar success in permanently sequestering the carbon dioxide as was seen at the Carbfix project in the basaltic type rocks in Iceland. If so, this technique could be expanded to more global locations, including Indonesia, to ultimately have a positive impact on our efforts to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Conclusions: Results from the experiments conducted up to this point indicate that a high amount of calcium is released into the fluids due to dissolution of the plagioclase minerals, but little to no iron and magnesium release, to be expected due to the lack of olivine and pyroxene minerals. So if carbon dioxide is to be permanently trapped in these systems, it will mainly be in the form of calcium carbonate minerals. Although this process is likely to be slower in andesite type rocks compared to basaltic, the Carbfix project reported permanent sequestration in just 2 years, so even if andesite type rocks are an order of magnitude slower than this, it will still be a huge improvement on the 1000 year time expected in other geological carbon storage techniques. We have also found evidence of some secondary mineral formation containing aluminium in the systems, which is currently being further investigate, as this may have implications on the pore space availability in geothermal reservoir systems. References: 1 J. Sawin, K. Seyboth and F. Sverrisson, Renewables 2017 Global Status Report, Paris, 2017. 2 S. . Snbjrnsdttir, B. Sigfsson, C. Marieni, D. Goldberg and E. H. Oelkers, Nature Reviews Earth and Environment, , DOI:10.1038/s43017-019-0011-8. 3 B. P. McGrail, H. T. Schaef, F. A. Spane, J. A. Horner, A. T. Owen, J. B. Cliff, O. Qafoku, C. J. Thompson and E. C. Sullivan, Energy Procedia, 2017, 114, 57835790. 4 E. S. P. Aradttir, I. Gunnarsson, B. Sigfsson, G. Gunnarsson, B. M. Jliusson, E. Gunnlaugsson, H. Sigurdardttir, M. T. Arnarson and E. 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